Ancient Near East 10

This has been an interesting class overall, it was especially insightful to see the way in which a religious center develops and also to view Jerusalem as a city that is the center of three major religions and the way in which different conflicts over that have played out and how the religions are also interrelated due to historical events as well. My favorite section of this class was probably that of the Davidic covenant because I found the idea of cognitive dissonance and its impact upon the texts and religion that we have today to be especially relevant to religion as well as life. I also liked learning about modern day history and if I had to add a comment about this class would have liked to see a larger section upon modern day conflicts and the religious and political world regarding such conflict. Thanks Professor Cargill for a great quarter!

Jordanian Jerusalem-

Six-Day War 1967
- Jordanians take the East, Israel takes the West. Palestinian does not take anything.

1967 -Soviet informs Syria of impending Israeli attack. Jordan signs a military agreement with Egypt. Syria, Lebanon and Egypt team up and plan to attack Israel because they think Israel will attack them.
Israeli forces launches a pre-emptive strike and within hours they destroy the Egyptian air force and take control of the Sinai Peninsula and the Old City.

Moshe Dayan is an Israeli general who gives control of the Haram to the Muslims and forbids Jews to pray on the Haram. Israeli Knesset annexes the Old city and East Jerusalem (was Jordanian), but the United Nations rejects it.

Jerusalem the capital of the New Israeli State and becomes a united Jerusalem after the six day war. In the past from 1948-1867 Old City and East was Jordanian and the New city or West was Israeli.

1988-1992: Intifadas or uprising from the Palestinians. Strikes, boycotts, refusal to pay Israeli taxes, etc. 1996- Temple mount tunnel controversy. The first intifadas led to the Oslo accords in 1993

The Oslo accords of theThe Declaration of Principles- first face to face agreement between Israel and PLO in Oslo, Norway. Called for the creation of PNA to help with independent Palestinian government and the Israeli withdrawal from the Gaza strip and West Bank. Letters of Mutual recognitions: Israel acknowledges PLO as the legitimate representative of Palestinian people and PLO recognizes Israel’s right to exist as a state and also renounce terrorism.

PLO- Palestine Liberation Organization- founded in 1964, headed by Yasser Arafat. Considered by US to be a terrorist org until the Madrid conference in 19991. State of Palestine and independence declared in Nov 15th 1988.

2nd Intifada or Al aqsa Intifada provoked when Ariel Sharon takes a walk on the mosque, where you are forbidden go. Begins another armed uprising.

21st Century Jerusalem-
2000- Israel withdraws from Southern Lebanon. Sept 28th second intifada
2001-Sept 11th attack results in invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003.
2002- Israel begins construction of West Bank barrier

Argument- building a wall inside the UN approved area. But Israelis say that you turned i
it down and so accept it now.

September 11th can be seen as changing a lot of things. The way in which the conflict is viewed, the different political parties and their agendas and reactions etc.

2004- PNA Chairman Yasser Arafat dies on nov 11.
2005- Israel’s unilateral disengagement plan forcibly removes Israelis from Gaza.
2006- Hamas defeats Fatah in Palestinian elections
2006 July, Israel Hezbollah War or Lebanon war is fought in Southern Lebanon and Northern Israel.
2007- June- Palestinian Civil War Hamas takes over Gaza while Fatah controls west Bank
2007- Israel starts shooting back, Operation Cast Lead or Gaza War. Dec 2007-Jan 2008.

2010 Israel announces new housing settlements and IHH gaza Flotilla is boarded by Israeli troops.

Lecture 17-
The use of archaeology to prove faith. People going to look for evidence to prove religious faith. Often happened in the 19th century with the English who came in, resulted in names such as “Warren’s Shaft”.

Secular Zionism- a fund established to buy land in Palestine for Jews. Orthodox jews reject Zionism as not pious. Can’t just be a Jew by being in Jerusalem.

Theodore Herzl in 1896- writes “The Jewish State”- Calls for a Jewish state but argues that Jerusalem pays no role. Even suggests a Zionist State in Uganda.

Not necessarily religious, just a place for the Jewish people.
1899- The first zionist conference. Herzl was described as a messiah, the son of David.

So the Zionists built Tel Aviv, not Jerusalem. Like Los Angeles, modern city with modern problems like LA has.

The Rise in Anti-Semitism and Immigration
There is a rise in European nationalism, as Jews do better and are disliked. Anti-semitic programs in Islam by catholics 1840, in Russia in 1992, and in 1902- the second aliya as Jews flee Russia and Europe to Palestine.
Peel Committee 1937- the plan in 1939 was for the partition of the country
Rise of Hitler and anti-Semitism- Large increase in Jewish population which causes conflicts with Arabs

World War 1- Ottoman aligns with Germany against France and Britain. At the end of the war the only empires that are left are Germany and Russia. Jerusalem are now the headquarters for VIII Turkish Corps, the first group of people to adopt Christianity, Armenians flee Turkey to Jerusalem and the Armenian quarter increases.

British use Palestine to break the stalemate (General Allenby conquers Palestine in 1917). The British now run it. The Sykes Picot Agreement in 1916 between the UK and France where they divided the Ottoman empire into areas of control and influence. France would get turkey, Northern Iraq, Lebanon and Syria and Brits would get Palestine Jordan, and Southern Iraq.

The Balfour Declaration in 1917 British PM directs Arthur Balfour to write to Lord Rothschild, letter supports a Jewish National state in Palestine as long as the rights of non Jewish communities are preserved. Interpreted by Jews to mean they get their own state, and Palestinanians the same thing. Confusion over interpretation on both sides.

British Mandate from 1918-1948 to protect holy places of all faiths.

Churchill writes a “White Paper” in 1922, which clarified Britian’s view of the Balfour declaration after Arab riots.
Britian at first did not support a Jewish National Home, but a community in Palestine. However. In 1922, Britain partitions an area to the West of Jordan for a Jewish settlement. An east Jordan area named Transjordan and given to Abdullah L. Basically formed Jordan.

Riots- and factions of Jews. Jewish militant factions, “Hagganah, Irgun and Lehi” form as well as Arab factions.

Early two state solution which partitioned Palestine Jewish state in north section (Coast, Tel Aviv), Jerusalem under British, and Arab (West Bank), bottom half. The UN votes on it in 1947 and approves it.

Arabs reject it on basis of unfair population distribution, the Jews barely accept it. Civil war breaks out.

1948- Arab Israeli War. The british are being attacked by Jews because they are foreign western occupiers. The British decide to leave on Friday May 14th 1948. Jews call it the “war of independence”. Operation Kilshon. Jordan Army arrives on the 16th and they fight. Finally in July the UN arranges a truth and Israel and Jordan sign an armistice on March 16th 1949 which creates a green line between Israel and Jordanian West Bank. Israel got a state and Jordan got a state essentially. Top of the temple mount today is also controlled by the Jordanians.

Israel west Jerusalem and Jordan East Jerusalem with the temple mount in the middle.

The catastrophe- “al miqba” What arabs describe the establishment of the Israeli state and Jordanian control of West Bank.

David Ben Gurion- says “Jewish Jerusalem is an organic and inseparable part of the state of Israel. Jerusalem is the heart of hearts of the state of Israel.” Physically, symbolically, politically, what it means to be Jewish.

King Badullah is assassinated in front of the Al-Aqsa mosque in 1951 by an Arab radical. King Hussein declares that Jerusalem is the second capital of the state of Jordan in 1953. Jordanians develop tourism.
The War of Independence
- 1948 Arab-Israeli war.

Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem (1250-1516)

- (Mamluk means owned, soldier of slave origin. Was originally a grassroots movement)
Jerusalem becomes a religious center, and similar to Mecca, there is now a “Ziyara, or visit” to Jerusalem. Jerusalem not really significant politically, just a religious symbol.

- Development of the Haram. Also built schools, hostels, etc. Used existing material from Crusaders. Only two new mosques built, one is Friday mosque in Citadel.

1351-1353- The plague :(

- Mamluk Architecture: many domes, alternating red and white or black and white of stones. Entrances- characterized by muqarnas half dome, red and white etc.
- Al- Madrasa al- Ashrafiyya: Qur’anic school and known as the third jewel of Jerusalem. Built in 1482. Built by Sultan Ah-Ashraf Qaithey.
- Ghawanima Minaret- built in 1298 by the Chief Judge Qadi of Jerusalem. On the Northwestern corner of the Haram. Reused crusader columns/ foundations.

- The Jewish quarter continues to grow as a religious/spiritual center. Rabbi Nachmanides makes aliyah (pilgrimage) in 1267 and founds the Ramban Synagogue and attracts Jews to study with him. Argues “Aliyah is a commandment upon all Jews”. Founds Kabbalah- Jewish mysticism. Spiritualized temple/Jerusalem. The temple is a symbolic path to God. Zion is not a real mountain, but the divine presence/final stage. Nachmanides could be one of the first “Zionists”.

Ottoman Jerusalem- 1516-1918.

Take Constantinople in 1453. Jerusalem is surrendered in 1516, Selim I defeats the Mamluks in 1517. Posession of the first “qiblah,” or direction of prayer. The Ottoman/Turkish admin flourishes, strong central gov.

The sultan Suleiman the magnificent comes into power from 1520-1566. Following the Suez canal in 1869- Jerusalem is revived. Suleiman repairs aqueducts, Sultan’s pool, rebuilds walls, refurbishes Haram and monuments, etc. Work parallels Mecca and Medina, Jerusalem as the third great city of Islam.

- Suleiman also establishes a shari’a court, the rule of Islam. and Jewish refugees encouraged to settle in Jerusalem. Population triples from 1525-1553.
From Suleiman to Abdulhamid in 1909, restoration of the Haram coincides with concessions to foreign rules. Also often preceded restoration of Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Didn’t exclude either group, christians or Jews.

Ottoman architecture- Damascus. Road to damascus, faces north. Largest of the seven gates and includes defenses.
-Jaffa Gate- walking into Jerusalem is a tradition. Wilhem Kaiser tore part of it it down to enter on a procession. Road goes through now.
Western wall (Not a wall of the temple, a wall of the retaining structure upon which the temple is built) - given to the Jews by Suleiman as a place of prayer. Attracts myths, and Suleiman himself clears it and purifies it.

Islamic Jerusalem
639-1099 CE

The end of Byzantine Jerusalem-
The Sasanians take over Palestine and Jerusalem from 614-628. The last pre-islamic Persian empire. In 614 Jews were allowed to resettle in Jerusalem for the first time since the end of Bar Kokhba.
Then in 628 CE, Byzantine emperor Heraclius retakes Jerusalem and allows massacre of Jews. Early on it was already the Persians that were friendly towards Jews vs. the Byzantine Christians that were not.

The Prophet Muhammad-
When he dies, he doesn’t leave an heir so Caliphs or representatives are established to lead the Islamic community. Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman. Then, Ali who was Muhammad’s son in law and Mu’awiya (Uthman’s cousin) , which creates a split.. Supporters of Ali form a kinship based group, the Shi’ites. Supporters of Mu’awiya formed a Tradition based group, the Sunnis. Caliph Umar takes over in 638 takes temple mount of Islam. Written agreement with the Christian community to not allow Jewish settlement. However, he later allowed them to move back into the city and their population grew.

Islamic terms for Jerusalem- Muslims use Aelia, the city of the temple. Islamic descriptions, the Holy house, Bait Maqdis. This is shortened to Al Quds, or “the holy,” (this is actually minted on coins in 832). Haram al-sharif or “the noble sanctuary is used for the temple mount. and Al awsa is “the farthest” mosque.

Jerusalem in Islam-
Qibla is the direction of prayer, first it’s towards Jerusalem, then toward Mecca. The Kaaba in Mecca- a meteorite that fell from heaven that becomes the new center for Islam. Mihrab- a small niche that points towards the direction of prayer.

The five pillars of Islam-
There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his messenger.
- Salat or prayer five times a day at appointed times. Zakut or ams giving. Sawn or fasting done for Ramadan. Hajj, making the pilgramage. Tradition to paint your doorr bright colors.

The Umayad Dynasty:
Zaliph Umar builds a wooden mosque and Abd al-Malik builds the dome of the Rock 691. They are ruling out of Damascus wso the purpose for the Dome of the Rock is to divert pilgramage from Mecca to Jerusalem. Al aqsa mosque built on the site of Umars mosque 705-715. Muslims took over but were tolerant of both Christians and Jews. Continuing pilgramage tradition as well. Tolerance overall is promoted.

The son of Abd Al-Malik was Caliph Walid, from 705-715. Builds islamic palaces and administrative buildings. Decorated, advanced tech of fresh water, etc. Never completed as intended, but often used.

History of the dome of the rock.
Abd Al malik builds it; it was comissioned in 687 and completed in 691 CE. Financed with tax revenues. Often damaged by earthquakes. In 1099 crusaders come in and convert the Dome of the Rock into a church. In 1187 Saladin reconquers Jerusalem and restores it.

Byzantine Martyria-
Martyria ( or memorial) examples of the Kathisma Church, the Holy sepulcher and other churches that mirrored the dome of the Rock. Christian and Byzantine builders for both. Inscriptions on the dome of the rock, negative inscriptions that were Anti-Christian. Only God is God, cannot be human, spirit, etc.

Traditions about the dome of the rock- was a stop on Muhammad’s Miraj or night journey to heaven. Underneath is the axis to hell or the well of souls. Becomes Mt. Moriah, sacrifice of Ishmael or Isaac. Place of the final judgement as well. Rock is the site of the holy of holies or the great altar. Solomon’s temple or the qibla/direction of prayer.

Qur’an 17:1. Muhamma’s night journey or Mi’raj. Journey from sacred mosque of Mecca to the farthest msque. Went on a Buraq or a Al-buraq which is similar to the Cherubim. Magical winged beast.

The Dome of the Chain- where final judgement will occur in the end of the days. The geometric center of the Haram esh sharif or the temple mount. The chain which Solomon suspended between heaven and earth - an Axis Mundi. Only an honest man can take hold of it.

Al aqsa mosque- farthest mosque. Built between
705 and 715 CE by Calpih Walid. Built above the stables of solomon and over Umars mosque and remains of Herod’s stoaa. Prayer here is worth 500 elsewhere. One in Medina is 1000, and one in the Sacred mosque in Mecca is worth 100,000 prayers.

750-969, the Abbasid Dynasty:

They try to eliminate Umayyid memories and take credit for things like building the Dome of the Rock( Al -Ma-mun) . He also continues his polemic against Christianity. Islam still discourages the holy trinity. Muhammad al-Sanhaji governor of Jerusalem kills John Patriach (Christian in 965).

Fatimids Dynasty- 969-1099 (Egypt) .
- Not sunni Muslims, small islamic minority.
They ruled during a period of upheaval, but the population of jerusalem is still increasing. The welfare of the Christians and Jews changes depending on who is ruling, tolerance or persecution. Near the end of their rule, both Jewish and Christian governors were appointed.

969- 1029:
” The war of sixty years”
The Byzantine army comes to rescue Jerusalem.
1009 Caliph Al-Hakim orders the destruction of all Jewish and Christian houses of prayer, including the Holy Sepulcher.

1033- Earthquake severely damages Jerusalem’s walls and buildings, including the Dome of the Rock. 1034, it is restored, city walls rebuilt.
1070-1098 Seljuqs occupy Jerusalem and destroy, loot and massacre. 1098- The Fatimids lead a 40 day siege, and retake the city.

Byzantine Jerusalem

In Christianity- other cities become more important. Things are moving West. Paul goes on missionary journeys, working West to Rome. Increasing expansion of Christianity to Rome. But where it all began was Jerusalem.

Chronology- Byzantine Jerusalem 312-637 CE. Persians capture Jerusalem in 614 CE and Jerusalem surrenders to Arabs and becomes a Islamic city in 638 CE.

Jesus was a Jew- the people who saw Jesus as the messiah were also Jews, however, the schism caused them to become their own religion of Christianity.
Spiritualization of the faith and rejection of the temple- Jesus supposedly predicted destruction of temple. John 4:19-26- spiritualization, “God is spirit and worshipers must worship in spirit and truth”

Events of the early church recorded in Acts. Jesus ascends from the Mount of Olives, the holy spirit descends, the early church in Jerusalem. There is a Jerusalem council that debates the controversy of food, circumcision, etc. Are you Jewish before Christian? Doctrinal debate, no longer rooted in Jerusalem. Paul is arrested on Temple. Vision of New Jerusalem, the city becomes more symbolic for Christianity.

Apocalypses about Jerusalem Mark 13:1-2. Jesus made prediction of temple’s destruction or was it written in afterwards? Same with Luke 21.

Jerusalem is important to christians because it’s where Jesus was crucified, buried, and resurrected.

Aelia Capitolia- ca 300CE-
Byzantine History- 285 CE. Emperor Diocletian splits admin of the empire between East and West, was called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian is the Emperor- Augustus. So Then a vice president was instituted- a Caesar. A man named Maximian was the Caesar. Then he split it again. Maximian in control of West, Diocletian in control of West but then added co emperors. Maximians West vice emperor was Constantius and Diocletians in vice emperor in the East was Galerius. When Constantius dies Galerius promoses Severus to Augustus. However Constantius’ son named Constantine who wanted to be emperor. He pulls together troops fights, and Constantine the Great takes complete control from 312-337 CE.

312- battle of the Milvian bridge. “conquer in the name of Jesus”. Christian ideal of pacifism has now been changed.
313- Edict of Milan legalizes Christianity. Some say he only used it to unify his kingdom. Lots of dissention and infighting between different christian factions.
324- Constantine wants a standard, creates a council of Nicaea in 324 CE. Doctrine of the Trinity. Jesus was fully god and fully human. 7th canon “Aelia should have an honored position”
330 CE Byzantium becomes Constantinople.

Did Constantine use Christianity to unite his empire? Did he adversely influence it?

Constantine’s mom- Helena. Credited the First Christian Pilgramage. Dedicates the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem and Church of Ascension on Mount of Olives. Comes to visit in 324 CE. Rededicates Church of the Holy Sepulcher to Chapel of Helena in 330 (Legend on finding the true cross). This becomes the new axis mundi built over where Jesus was crucified and buried- temple mount no longer the axis mundi.

Not all went according to plan because afterwards, Julian “the apostate” rules from 361-363 and starts to rebuild the temple. Rejects Christianity.
Emperor Theodosius takes over in 391 and names Christianity the official state religion.
Empress Eudocia, wife of Theodosius II makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 438 CE, builds hospitals, churches in Jerusalem. Emperor Justinian in 527-565 CE expands Jerusalem. Builds the Nea/New Church in honor of St. Mary.
- procopius describes it. Similar to the old temple. Shrine built to commemorate/outdo/transfer from the old temple.

Pilgrimage-
Jewish pilgrimages:
pre destruction there were three festivals, post destruction, just the 9th of Ab.

Christian Pilgrimages: Helenea 326 CE- first Chrisian pilgrim.
Pilgrim of Bordeaux 333 CE- his chronicle. Oldest known pilgrim account.

Egeria-Spanish pilgrim 381.
Gregory of Nyssa- pilgrimage “contained the footprints of life”
Blessing to visit the holy city. Eliade- being near a sacred space. Pilgrimage is very important. Grafitti on pillar in the church of the Holy Sepulcher.

Pilgrimages- boat with inscription Domine Ivimus- “Lord we have come”
Psalms of ascents also contain pilgrimages.

Madaba Map- 6th CE:
Church in Jordan, there is a mosaic map on the floor. This map tells us a lot about Jerusalem. All the different gates are shown along with the Temple Mount (which is no longer in the center of Jerusalem, but on the side). The center is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.

There are new myths about the church of the Holy Sepulcher. Primal myth transferred from Temple. The tomb is a theophany and draws in all the myths: Adam is now buried at Golgatha, Abraham now bound Isaac here instead of on Mt Moriah. Symbolic center where divinity touches humanity- incarnation, god becoming man. Destruction of Aphrodite’s temple painted as “triump over evil”